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World War I
World War I[j] or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting took place mainly in Europe and the Middle East, as well as in parts of Africa and the Asia-Pacific, and in Europe was characterised by trench warfare and the use of artillery, machine guns, and chemical weapons (gas).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-10
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_war
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Powers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_I
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Eastern_theatre_of_World_War_I
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_theatre_of_World_War_I
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_and_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_I
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trench_warfare
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artillery_of_World_War_I
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_weapons_in_World_War_I
World War I was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, resulting in an estimated 9 million military dead and 23 million wounded, plus up to 8 million civilian deaths from causes including genocide (including the Armenian genocide). The movement of large numbers of troops and civilians was a major factor in spreading the Spanish flu pandemic, which killed millions.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_wars_by_death_toll
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I_casualties
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocides_in_history_(World_War_I_through_World_War_II)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_genocide
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_flu
The causes of World War I included the rise of Germany and decline of the Ottoman Empire, which disturbed the balance of power in Europe in place for most of the 19th century, as well as increased economic competition between nations triggered by new waves of industrialisation and imperialism. Growing tensions between the great powers and in the Balkans reached a breaking point on 28 June 1914, when a Bosnian Serb named Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_I
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empire
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Imperialism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_power
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_Crisis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnian_Serb
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavrilo_Princip
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary held Serbia responsible, and declared war on 28 July. Russia mobilised in Serbia's defence, and by 4 August, Germany, Russia, France, and the United Kingdom were drawn into the war, with the Ottomans joining in November of the same year. Germany's strategy in 1914 was to quickly defeat France, then to transfer its forces to the Russian front. However, this failed, and by the end of the year the Western Front consisted of a continuous line of trenches stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland. The Eastern Front was more dynamic, but neither side could gain a decisive advantage, despite costly offensives. As the fighting expanded to more fronts, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece and others joined in from 1915 onward.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlieffen_Plan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_I
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_I
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece_during_World_War_I
In April 1917, the United States entered the war on the Allied side following Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare against Atlantic shipping. Later that year, the Bolsheviks seized power in the Russian October Revolution, after which Soviet Russia signed an armistice with the Central Powers in December, followed by a separate peace in March 1918. That month, Germany launched an offensive in the west, which despite initial successes left the German Army exhausted and demoralised. A successful Allied counter-offensive from August 1918 caused a collapse of the German front line. By early November, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary had each signed armistices with the Allies, leaving Germany isolated. Facing a revolution at home, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on 9 November, and the war ended with the Armistice of 11 November 1918.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_entry_into_World_War_I
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unrestricted_submarine_warfare_(February_1917)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolsheviks
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_Revolution
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_between_Russia_and_the_Central_Powers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_spring_offensive
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_German_Army
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Days_Offensive
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_II,_German_Emperor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918
The Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920 imposed various settlements on the defeated powers, most notably the Treaty of Versailles, by which Germany lost significant territories, was disarmed, and was required to pay large sums of war reparations to the Allies. The dissolution of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires redrew national boundaries and resulted in the creation of new independent states, including Poland, Finland, the Baltic states, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The League of Nations was established to maintain world peace, but its failure to manage instability during the interwar period contributed to the outbreak of World War II in 1939.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_reparations
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_states
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Czechoslovak_Republic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nations
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interwar_period
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II
Names
The first recorded use of the term First World War was in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel who stated, "There is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word."[1] It was later used as a title for his 1920 memoirs by Lt-Col. Charles à Court Repington.[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShapiroEpstein2006329-11
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_%C3%A0_Court_Repington
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-12
Before World War II, the events of 1914–1918 were generally known as the Great War or simply the World War. [3] In August 1914, the magazine The Independent wrote "This is the Great War. It names itself".
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraybon20048-13
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Independent_(New_York_City)
[4] In October 1914, the Canadian magazine Maclean's similarly wrote, "Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War."[5] Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as "the war to end war" and it was also described as "the war to end all wars" due to their perception of its unparalleled scale, devastation, and loss of life.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-independent19140817-14
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maclean%27s
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-15
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_war_to_end_war
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-16
[6]
Background
Main article: Causes of World War I
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_I
Political and military alliances
Rival military coalitions in 1914:[k] Triple Entente Triple Alliance
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-17
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_Entente
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)
Map of Europe focusing on Austria-Hungary and marking the central location of ethnic groups in it including Slovaks, Czechs, Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Romanians, Ukrainians, Poles.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_Europe_alliances_1914-en.svg
For much of the 19th century, the major European powers maintained a tenuous balance of power, known as the Concert of Europe.[7] After 1848, this was challenged by Britain's withdrawal into so-called splendid isolation, the decline of the Ottoman Empire, New Imperialism, and the rise of Prussia under Otto von Bismarck. The 1866 Austro-Prussian War established Prussian hegemony in German states, while victory in the 1870–1871 Franco-Prussian War allowed Bismarck to consolidate a German Empire under Prussian leadership.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concert_of_Europe
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2013121%E2%80%93152-18
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splendid_isolation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Imperialism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegemony
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unification_of_Germany
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empire
Post 1871, the primary aim of French policy was to avenge this defeat,[8] but by the early 1890s, this had switched to the expansion of the French colonial empire.[9]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revanchism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZeldin1977117-19
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_colonial_empire
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-20
In 1873, Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors, which included Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany. After the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War, the League was dissolved due to Austrian concerns over the expansion of Russian influence in the Balkans, an area they considered to be of vital strategic interest. Germany and Austria-Hungary then formed the 1879 Dual Alliance, which became the Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1882.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_the_Three_Emperors
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria-Hungary
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_Alliance_(1879)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeegan199852-21
10
For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France by ensuring the three Empires resolve any disputes between themselves; when this was threatened in 1880 by British and French attempts to negotiate directly with Russia, he reformed the League in 1881, which was renewed in 1883 and 1885. After this expired in 1887, Bismarck set up the Reinsurance Treaty, a secret agreement between Germany and Russia to remain neutral if either were attacked by France or Austria-Hungary.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinsurance_Treaty
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedlicott194566%E2%80%9370-22
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World empires and colonies c. 1914
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:World_1914_empires_colonies_territory.PNG
For Bismarck, peace with Russia was the foundation of German foreign policy but in 1890, he was forced to retire by Wilhelm II. The latter was persuaded not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty by his new Chancellor, Leo von Caprivi.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_II,_German_Emperor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_von_Caprivi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeenan198620-23
12
This gave France an opening to agree the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894, which was then followed by the 1904 Entente Cordiale with Britain. The Triple Entente was completed by the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention. While not formal alliances, by settling long-standing colonial disputes in Asia and Africa, British support for France or Russia in any future conflict now became a possibility.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Russian_Alliance
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entente_Cordiale
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_Entente
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Game
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillmott200315-24
13
This was accentuated by British and Russian support for France against Germany during the 1911 Agadir Crisis.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agadir_Crisis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFay1930290%E2%80%93293-25
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Arms race
SMS Rheinland, a Nassau-class battleship, Germany's first response to the British Dreadnought, 1910
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMS_Rheinland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nassau-class_battleship
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_DVM_10_Bild-23-61-23,_Linienschiff_%22SMS_Rheinland%22.jpg
German economic and industrial strength continued to expand rapidly post-1871. Backed by Wilhelm II, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz sought to use this growth to build an Imperial German Navy, that could compete with the British Royal Navy.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_von_Tirpitz
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_German_Navy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillmott200321-26
15
This policy was based on the work of US naval author Alfred Thayer Mahan, who argued that possession of a blue-water navy was vital for global power projection; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm made them required reading for his advisors and senior military personnel.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Thayer_Mahan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue-water_navy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerwig198872%E2%80%9373-27
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However, it was also an emotional decision, driven by Wilhelm's simultaneous admiration for the Royal Navy and desire to surpass it. Bismarck thought that the British would not interfere in Europe, as long as its maritime supremacy remained secure, but his dismissal in 1890 led to a change in policy and an Anglo-German naval arms race began.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-German_naval_arms_race
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMollLuebbert1980153%E2%80%93185-28
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Despite the vast sums spent by Tirpitz, the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906 gave the British a technological advantage over their German rivals.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Dreadnought_(1906)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWillmott200321-26
15
Ultimately, the race diverted huge resources into creating a German navy large enough to antagonise Britain, but not defeat it; in 1911, Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg acknowledged defeat, leading to the Rüstungswende or 'armaments turning point', when he switched expenditure from the navy to the army.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theobald_von_Bethmann_Hollweg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStevenson201645-29
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This decision was not driven by a reduction in political tensions but by German concern over Russia's quick recovery from its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and subsequent 1905 Russian Revolution that same year. Economic reforms, backed by French funding, led to a significant post-1908 expansion of railways and transportation infrastructure, particularly in its western border regions.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1905_Russian_Revolution
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrisp1976174%E2%80%93196-30
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Since Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on faster mobilisation to compensate for their numerical inferiority compared to Russia, the threat posed by the closing of this gap was more important than competing with the Royal Navy. After Germany expanded its standing army by 170,000 troops in 1913, France extended compulsory military service from two to three years; similar measures were taken by the Balkan powers and Italy, which led to increased expenditure by the Ottomans and Austria-Hungary. Absolute figures are difficult to calculate due to differences in categorising expenditure since they often omit civilian infrastructure projects like railways which also had logistical importance and military use. It is known, however, that from 1908 to 1913, military spending by the six major European powers increased by over 50% in real terms.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStevenson201642-31
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