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Romania
Romania,
countryof southeastern
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Europe. The national capital is
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Bucharest. Romania was occupied by Soviet troops in 1944 and became a satellite of the
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Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(U.S.S.R.) in 1948. The country was under communist rule from 1948 until 1989, when the
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regimeof Romanian leader
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Nicolae Ceaușescuwas overthrown. Free elections were held in 1990. In 2004 the country joined the
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North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO), and in 2007 it became a member of the
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European Union(EU).
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Romania
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Romania
The Romanian landscape is approximately one-third mountainous and one-third forested, with the remainder made up of hills and plains. The climate is temperate and marked by four distinct seasons. Romania enjoys a considerable wealth of natural resources: fertile land for agriculture; pastures for livestock; forests that provide hard and soft woods; petroleum reserves; metals, including gold and silver in the


Apuseni Mountains; numerous rivers that supply hydroelectricity; and a
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Black Seacoastline that is the site of both ports and resorts.
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The Romanian people
derivemuch of their ethnic and cultural character from
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Romaninfluence, but this ancient identity has been reshaped continuously by Romania’s position astride major continental migration routes. Romanians regard themselves as the descendants of the ancient Romans who conquered southern
https://www.britannica.com/place/Roman-Romania	https://www.britannica.com/place/Roman-Romania https://www.britannica.com/place/Romanian-Plain https://www.britannica.com/place/Tulcea-Romania

Transylvaniaunder the emperor
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Trajanin 105CEand of the Dacians who lived in the mountains north of the Danubian Plain and in the Transylvanian Basin. By the time of the Roman withdrawal under the emperor
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Aurelianin 271, the Roman settlers and the Dacians had intermarried, resulting in a new nation. Both the Latin roots of the
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Romanian languageand the Eastern Orthodox faith to which most Romanians adhere emerged from the mixture of these two
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cultures.
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From the arrival of the
Hunsin the 5th century until the emergence of the principalities of
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Walachiaand
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Moldaviain the 14th century, the Romanian people virtually disappeared from written history. During this time Romania was invaded by great folk migrations and warriors on horseback who traveled across the Danubian Plain. It is believed that in the face of ceaseless violence the Romanians were forced to relocate, finding safety in the
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Carpathian Mountains. As military chief
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Helmuth von Moltkeobserved: “Resistance having nearly always proven useless, the Romanians could no longer think of any other way of defense than flight.”Britannica QuizMatch the Country with Its Hemisphere Quiz
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For the next 600 years the Romanian lands served as battlegrounds for their neighbours’ conflicting ambitions. The Romanians were unable to withstand the imperial pressures first from the

Byzantinesand then from the Ottoman Turks to the south in Constantinople (now Istanbul), or later from the
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Habsburgempire to the west and from
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Russiato the east.
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In 1859 the principalities of Walachia and Moldavia were united, and in 1877 they proclaimed their independence from the
Ottoman Empireas the modern Romania. This was accompanied by a conversion from the
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Cyrillic alphabetto the Latin and by an exodus of students who sought
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higher educationin western Europe, especially
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France.
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Despite its late start as a European nation-state, Romania in the 20th century produced several world-renowned
intellectuals, including composer
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Georges Enesco, playwright
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Eugène Ionesco, philosopher Emil Cioran, religion historian
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Mircea Eliade, and Nobel laureate
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George E. Palade. On the eve of
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World War II, journalist Rosa Goldschmidt Waldeck (Countess Waldeck) described her strongest impression of the Romanians:
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Two thousand years of severe foreign masters,
barbarian invasions,
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rapaciousconquers, wicked princes, cholera, and earthquakes have given Rumanians a superb sense of the temporary and transitory quality of everything. Experience in survival has taught them that each fall may result in unforeseen opportunities and that somehow they always get on their feet again.
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Land of Romania
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Romania
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Romania
Romania is bounded by
Ukraineto the north,
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Moldovato the northeast, the
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Black Seato the southeast,
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Bulgariato the south,
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Serbiato the southwest, and
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Hungaryto the west. There is a certain symmetry in the physical structure of Romania. The
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countryforms a complex geographic unit centred on the
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Transylvanian Basin, around which the peaks of the
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Carpathian Mountainsand their associated subranges and structural platforms form a series of crescents. Beyond this zone, the extensive plains of the south and east of the country, their potential increased by the
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Danube Riverand its tributaries, form a fertile outer crescent extending to the frontiers. There is great
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diversityin the
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topography, geology, climate, hydrology, flora, and fauna, and for millennia this natural
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environmenthas borne the imprint of a human population.
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Romania
comprisesa number of geographic regions, some of which correspond roughly to the historic regions whose names they share. In the southern part of the country, following the general
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contoursof the former principality of the same name,
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Walachia(Wallachia) stretches south from the Southern Carpathians (Transylvanian Alps) to the Bulgarian border and is divided by the
https://www.britannica.com/place/Walachia	https://www.britannica.com/place/Walachia https://www.britannica.com/place/Chilia https://www.britannica.com/place/Olt
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Olt River. In the southeast, situated between the lower Danube and the Black Sea, is the historic and geographic region of
https://www.britannica.com/place/Olt-River	https://www.britannica.com/place/Olt-River https://www.britannica.com/place/Olt https://www.britannica.com/place/Prut-River

Dobruja, which also
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encompassespart of Bulgaria. The geographic region of
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Moldavia,
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comprisingonly part of the former principality of Moldavia (the remainder of which
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constitutesthe country of Moldova), stretches from the
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Eastern Carpathian Mountainsto the
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Prut Riveron the Ukrainian border. In western Romania, the historic
https://www.britannica.com/place/Prut-River	https://www.britannica.com/place/Prut-River https://www.britannica.com/place/Olt-River https://www.britannica.com/place/Siret-River

Banatregion is bounded on the north by the
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Mureș Riverand reaches west and south into Hungary and Serbia. Finally, bounded on the north and east by the Eastern Carpathians, on the south by the Southern Carpathians, and on the west by the Bihor Mountains is the geographic region of
https://www.britannica.com/place/Mures-River	https://www.britannica.com/place/Mures-River https://www.britannica.com/place/Mures https://www.britannica.com/place/Arges-River

Transylvania, which is roughly
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contiguouswith the borders of the former principality of Transylvania and in most schemes includes the Banat.
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Relief
The relief of Romania is dominated by the Carpathian Mountains, which can be divided into the Eastern Carpathians, the Southern Carpathians, and the Western Carpathians. The Eastern Carpathians extend from the Ukrainian frontier to the Prahova River valley and reach their maximum elevation in the

Rodna Mountains, with
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Pietrosurising to 7,556 feet (2,303 metres). They are made up of a series of parallel crests that are oriented in a more or less north-south direction. Within these mountains is a central core that is made up of hard, crystalline rocks and has a bold and rugged relief. Rivers have cut narrow
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gorgeshere (known as
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cheile)—including the Bistriței and Bicazului gorges—which offer some magnificent scenery. This portion of the Carpathians is bounded on the eastern side by a zone of softer flysch. For some 250 miles (400 km) on the western fringe, the volcanic rangesOaș and


Harghita, with a concentration of volcanic necks and cones, some with craters still preserved, lend character to the landscape. St. Ana Lake—the only crater lake in Romania—is also found there. The volcanic crescent provides rich mineral resources (notably copper, lead, and zinc) as well as the mineral-water springs on which are founded several health resorts. The Carpathian range proper is made up in large part of easily weathered limestones and conglomerates, which again provide some striking scenery. The
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Maramureș,
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Giurgiu, Ciuc, and Bârsei depressions further break up the mountainous relief.
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Kazan Gorge
Kazan GorgeKazan Gorge, cut by the Danube River, on the border of Serbia (left) and Romania (right).(more)
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The Southern Carpathians, or
Transylvanian Alps, lie between the Prahova River valley on the east and the
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Timișand Cerna river valleys to the west. They are composed mainly of hard crystalline and volcanic rocks, which give the region the massive character that
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differentiatesit from the other divisions of the Carpathians. The highest points in Romania are reached in the peaks of Mounts
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Moldoveanu(8,346 feet ) and
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2,544
metres
Negoiu(8,317 feet ), both in the
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2,535
metres
Făgăraș Mountains, which, together with the
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Bucegi, Parâng, andRetezat-Godeanu massifs, form the major subdivision of the region. The latter contains Retezat National Park, Romania’s first established (1935)
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national park, which covers about 94,000 acres (38,000 hectares), offers spectacular mountain scenery, and provides an important refuge for the
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chamois(Rupicapra rupicapra) and other animals. Ancient erosion platforms, another distinguishing feature of the area, have been
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utilizedas pastures since the dawn of European history. Communication is possible through the high passes of Bran, Novaci-Șugag, and Vâlcan, at elevations up to 7,400 feet (2,260 metres), but the scenic
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Olt,
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Jiu, and Danube river valleys carry the main roads and railways through the mountains. At the
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Iron Gategorge, on the Danube, a joint navigation and power
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projectby Romania and the former federation of
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Yugoslaviaharnessed the fast-flowing waters of the gorge. In addition to greatly improving navigation facilities, the project created two power stations, which are jointly administered by Romania and Serbia. Finally, as in the Eastern Carpathians, there are important lowland depressions within the mountains (notably Brezoi, Hațeg, and Petroșani), and agriculture and industry are concentrated in them.
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The
Western Carpathiansextend for about 220 miles (350 km) between the Danube and
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Someșrivers. Unlike the other divisions of the Carpathians, they do not form a
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continuousrange but rather a cluster of massifs around a north-south axis. Separating the massifs is a series of deeply penetrating structural depressions. Historically, these depressions have functioned as easily defended “gates,” as is reflected in their names: the Iron Gate of Transylvania (at Bistra); the Eastern Gate, or Poarta Orientală (at Timiș-Cerna); and, most famous, the Iron Gate on the Danube.
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Among the massifs themselves, the
BanatandPoiana Ruscăi mountains contain a rich variety of mineral resources and are the site of two of the country’s three largest metallurgical complexes, at
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Reșițaand
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Hunedoara. The marble of Ruschița is well known. To the north lie the
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Apuseni Mountains, centred on the
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Bihor Massif, from which emerge fingerlike protrusions of lower relief. On the east the Bihor Mountains merge into the limestone tableland ofCetățile Ponorului, where the erosive action of water along joints in the rocks has created a fine example of the rugged
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karsttype of scenery. To the west lie the parallel mountain ranges of Zărand, Codru-Moma, and Pădurea Craiului; to the south, along the
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Mureș River, the Metaliferi and Trascău mountains contain a great variety of metallic and other ores, with traces of ancient
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Romanmine workings still visible. The Western Carpathians generally are less forested than other parts of the range, and human settlement reaches to the highest elevations.
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The great arc of the Carpathians is accompanied by an outer
fringeof rolling terrain known as the
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Subcarpathiansand extending from the Moldova River in the north to the Motru River in the southwest. It is from 2 to 19 miles (3 to 31 km) wide and reaches elevations ranging between 1,300 and 3,300 feet (400 and 1,000 metres). The topography and the milder climate of this region favour vegetation (including such Mediterranean elements as the edible chestnut) and aid agriculture; the region specializes in cereals and fruits, and its
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wines—notably those of Odobești and the Călugărească Valley—are known throughout
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Europe. The area is densely populated, and there are serious problems of economic development in remoter areas where there is little scope for further agricultural expansion.
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Tablelandsare another important element in the physical geography of Romania. The tableland of the Transylvanian
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Basinis the largest in the country and has an average elevation of 1,150 feet (350 metres). In the east, between the outer fringe of the Subcarpathians and the
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Prut River, lies the
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Moldavian Plateau, with an average elevation of 1,600 to 2,000 feet (500 to 600 metres). The
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Dobruja(Dobrodgea) tableland, an ancient, eroded rock mass in the southeast, has an average elevation of 820 feet (250 metres) and reaches a maximum elevation of 1,532 feet (467 metres) in thePricopan Hills.
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Plains cover about one-third of Romania, reaching their fullest development in the south and west. Their economic importance has increased greatly since the early 19th century. In the southern part of Romania is the Walachian Plain, which can be divided into the


Romanian Plainto the east of the Olt River and theOltenian Plateau to the west. The whole region is covered by deposits of loess, on which rich black chernozem soils have developed, providing a strong base for agriculture. The
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Danubefloodplain is important economically, and along the entire stretch of the river, from Calafat in the west to
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Galațiin the east, former marshlands have been diked and drained to increase food production. Willow and poplar woods border the river, which is important for fishing but much more so for
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commerce. River port towns—including
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Drobeta–Turnu Severin, Turnu Măgurele,
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Giurgiu,
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Brăila, Galați, and
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Tulcea—complement the rural settlements.
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On the northern edge of the
Dobrujaregion, adjoining the Moldavian Plateau, the great swampy triangle of the
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Danube deltais a unique physiographic region covering some 2,000 square miles (5,180 square km), of which the majority is in Romania. The delta occupies the site of an ancient bay, which in prehistoric times became wholly or partially isolated from the sea by the Letea sandbanks. The delta, which was designated a UNESCO
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World Heritage sitein 1991, contributes about half of Romania’s fish production from home waters, with fishing off the Danube mouth contributing to the majority of the catch of sturgeon (banned since 2006) and Danube herring. It also is home to hundreds of species of birds, some of which are rare. For this reason the
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deltaregion is of great interest not only to a growing number of tourists but also to scientists and conservationists. Two dozen or more settlements are scattered over the region, but many are exposed to serious flood risks. Sulina and
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Tulceaare the major ports.
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Romania lies in an active earthquake zone at the junction of three tectonic plates. Devastating earthquakes in both 1940 and 1977 caused considerable damage and loss of life in Romania.

Drainage of Romania
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Olt River
Olt RiverOlt River, flowing through the Făgăraș Mountains, central Romania.
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The rivers of Romania are virtually all tributary to the Danube, which forms the southern frontier from
MoldovaNouă to
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Călărași. Nearly two-fifths of the total Danubian discharge into the
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Black Seais in fact provided by Romanian rivers. The final
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dischargetakes place through three arms—the
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Chilia(two-thirds of the flow),
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Sfântu Gheorghe(one-fourth), and
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Sulina(the remainder)—that add to the scenic attraction of the delta region. The most significant of the Romanian tributary rivers are the Prut,
https://www.britannica.com/place/Sulina	https://www.britannica.com/place/Sulina https://www.britannica.com/place/Sebes https://www.britannica.com/place/Banat

Mureș,
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Olt,
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Siret, Ialomiƫa, and Someș. The rivers have considerable hydroelectric potential, although there are great seasonal fluctuations in the discharge and few natural lakes to regulate the flow. The total surface-water potential of the tributary rivers is dwarfed by the volume discharged at the Danube mouth, which is more than five times as large. Subsoil waters have been estimated at an annual volume of some 250 billion cubic feet (700 million cubic metres).
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The total
theoreticalhydroelectric potential of Romania—given optimum technological conditions—is tremendous, but for technical and economic reasons only a fraction of this potential can be developed. Geographically, the hydroelectric reserves of Romania are concentrated along the Danube and in the valleys of rivers emerging from the mountain core of the
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country. Other hydrographic resources include more than 2,500 lakes, ranging from the glacial lakes of the mountains to those of the plains and the marshes of the Danube delta region. The main effort since the 1940s, however, has been on the
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Argeș, Bistrița, Lotru, Olt, Mare,
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Sebeș, and Someș rivers, as well as on the Danube at the
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Iron Gate.
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Soils
Romania has generally fertile soils. About one-fifth of the country is covered with chernozem—humus-rich black soils. These and reddish brown forest soils are found on the plains to the south and east of the Carpathians, as well as in the


Banat. Gray-brown podzolic (leached) soils are found at higher elevations. A broad expanse of alluvial soils covers the Danube floodplain. Ill-advised cultivation methods during the communist period and
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profligateuse of pesticides and industrial pollution after 1990 resulted in a
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legacyof significant soil erosion.
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Climate
Romania’s location in the southeastern portion of the European continent gives it a climate that is transitional between temperate regions and the harsher extremes of the continental interior. In the centre and west of the country, humid Atlantic climatic characteristics prevail; in the southeast the continental influences of the

Russian Plain(East European Plain) make themselves felt; and in the extreme southeast there are even milder sub-Mediterranean influences. This overall pattern is substantially modified by the relief, however, and there are many examples of climatic zones
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inducedby changes in elevation.Britannica QuizYou Name It!
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The average annual temperature is in the low 50s F (about 11 °C) in the south and in the 40s F (about 8 °C) in the north, although, as noted, there is much variation according to elevation and related factors. Extreme temperatures range from about 112 °F (45 °C) in the Bărăgan region to –37 °F (–38 °C) in the

BrașovDepression.
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Average annual rainfall amounts to about 25 inches (640 mm), but in the Carpathians it reaches about 55 inches (1,400 mm), and in the
Dobrujait is only about 16 inches (400 mm). Many regions are subject to periodic drought and flooding. Since the early 1990s Romania’s northern regions have been affected by severe rainfall and flooding. In 1998 and 1999 an unprecedented amount of rain fell in the Retezat Mountains, resulting in landslides, flooding, and widespread destruction and loss of lives. On the other hand, the southern areas of the country have suffered drought and high temperatures since the 1990s. These conditions have been
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exacerbatedby injudicious agricultural practices.
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/exacerbated	https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/exacerbated https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mitigate https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/legacy
Humid winds from the northwest are most common, but often the drier winds from the northeast are strongest. A hot southwesterly wind, the

austru, blows over western Romania, particularly in summer. In winter, cold and dense air masses encircle the eastern portions of the country, with the cold northeasterly known as the

crivățblowing in from the Russian Plain, and oceanic air masses from the
Azores, in the west, bring rain and
https://www.britannica.com/place/Azores	https://www.britannica.com/place/Azores https://www.britannica.com/place/Mures https://www.britannica.com/place/Sebes
mitigatethe severity of the cold.
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mitigate	https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mitigate https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/profligate https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/legacy
Romania enjoys four seasons, though there is a rapid transition from winter to summer. Autumn is frequently longer, with dry warm weather from September to late November.